Multi-decadal monsoon characteristics and glacier response in High Mountain Asia

Abstract Glacier health across High Mountain Asia (HMA) is highly heterogeneous and strongly governed by regional climate, which variably influenced monsoon dynamics the westerlies. We explore four decades of glacier energy mass balance at three climatically distinct sites HMA utilising a detailed land surface model driven bias-corrected Weather Research Forecasting meteorological forcing. All glaciers have experienced long-term losses (ranging from −0.04 ± 0.09 to −0.59 0.20 m w.e. −1 ) consistent with widespread warming region. However, complex contrasting responses patterns Indian Summer Monsoon were evident, largely role snowfall timing, amount phase. A later onset generates less total in southeastern Tibetan Plateau during May–June, augmenting net shortwave radiation affecting annual (−0.5 on average compared early years). Conversely, timing monsoon’s arrival has limited impact for Nepalese Himalaya more temperature core season. In arid central Plateau, results 40 mm (58%) increase May–June years, likely greater interaction westerly storm events. Meanwhile, late cessation this site sees an 200 (192%) summer precipitation due monsoonal storms. trend towards weaker intensity conditions recent decades, combined patterns, produced predominantly negative balances all (up 1 loss strong years) but sub-regional variability can additionally complicate response.